08.+Motivation+and+Emotion

In this part of the course, students explore biological and social factors that motivate behavior and biological and cultural factors that influence emotion. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following:

• Identify and apply basic motivational concepts to understand the behavior of

humans and other animals (e.g., instincts, incentives, intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation).

• Discuss the biological underpinnings of motivation, including needs, drives, and

homeostasis.

• Compare and contrast motivational theories (e.g., drive reduction theory, arousal

theory, general adaptation theory), including the strengths and weaknesses of each.

• Describe classic research findings in specific motivation systems (e.g., eating,

sex, social)

• Discuss theories of stress and the effects of stress on psychological and physical

well-being.

• Compare and contrast major theories of emotion (e.g., James–Lange, Cannon–

Bard, Schachter two-factor theory).

In this part of the course, students explore biological and social factors that motivate behavior and biological and cultural factors that influence emotion. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following:

• Identify and apply basic motivational concepts to understand the behavior of

humans and other animals (e.g., instincts, incentives, intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation).

• Discuss the biological underpinnings of motivation, including needs, drives, and

homeostasis.

• Compare and contrast motivational theories (e.g., drive reduction theory, arousal

theory, general adaptation theory), including the strengths and weaknesses of each.

• Describe classic research findings in specific motivation systems (e.g., eating,

sex, social)

• Discuss theories of stress and the effects of stress on psychological and physical

well-being.

• Compare and contrast major theories of emotion (e.g., James–Lange, Cannon–

Bard, Schachter two-factor theory).

**I.** **Motivation:**

**//Motivation//** //–// the process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behavior. Motivation is the need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal. · interplay between nature (the physiological” push”) and nurture (the cognitive and cultural “pull”) //Theories of Motivation// – **Evolutionary Theories (biological)–** a. //Instincts// – fixed, inborn patterns of response that are not learned and that are specific to members of a particular species. · ex. Imprinting in birds and return of salmon to their birthplace · an infant’s rooting and sucking reflexes **//Instinctive Theory//** – the belief that behavior is motivated by instinct species and be unlearned. · psychologists are interested in how genes predispose behavior and how evolution might influence phobias, helping behaviors, and romantic attractions **“Gene Knockout Experiments”** – researches disable specific genes then examine the resulting effect on motivation. · In twin and adoptee studies, researchers examine how strong heredity accounts for differences in motivated behavior, such as the tendencies to be outgoing or anti-social. **Drive Theory (Clark Hull)** – · the belief that behavior is motivated by drives that arise from biological needs that demand satisfaction **need** – is a state of deprivation or deficiency **drive** – a state of bodily tension, such as hunger or thirst, that arises from biological needs that demand satisfaction **homeostasis** – a tendency to maintain a balanced or consistent internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level **//drive reduction theory//** – the idea that a physiological need crates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need **incentive** – a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior 6. primary drives – innate drives, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire, that arise from basic biological needs **secondary drives** – drives that are learned or acquired through experience, such as the drive to achieve monetary wealth · when there is both a need and an incentive, individuals feel driven (if a person is food  deprived and smells baking bread feels a strong hunger drive) **Need (for food, water)** **→** **Drive (hunger, thirst)** **→** **Drive-Reducing Behavior (eating, drinking)** **Arousal Theory** · the belief that whenever the level of stimulation dips below an organism’s optimal level, the organism seeks ways of increasing it  · well fed animals will leave their shelter to explore seemingly in the absence of any need based drive **Yerkes-Dodson Law** – the proposition that the relationship between arousal and performance involves an inverted U-shaped faction, with better performance occurring at moderate levels of arousal **Expectancy Theory (McClelland)** – · explanations of behavior that focus on people’s expectations about reaching a goal and their need for achievement as energizing factors · motive – a specific (usually internal) condition, usually involving some form of arousal, which directs an organism’s behavior toward a goal · social need – an aroused condition that directs people to behave in ways that allow them to  feel good about themselves and others and to establish and maintain relationships Cognitive Theory **(Deci)** – · in the study of motivation, an explanation of behavior that asserts that people actively and regularly determine their own goals and the means of achieving them through thought **//intrinsic motivation//** – motivation that leads to behaviors engaged in for no apparent reward except the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity itself **//extrinsic motivation//** – motivation supplied by rewards that come from the external environment **//overjustification effect//** – decrease in the likelihood that an intrinsically motivated task after having been extrinsically rewards, will be preformed when the reward is no longer given **//cognitive dissonance//** (Festinger)- a state of mental uneasiness arising from a discrepancy between two or more of a person’s beliefs or between a person’s belief and behavior (ex- PETA and the leather coat) **Humanistic Theory** (Maslow) – · Explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth. · Some needs take priority over others and as those basic needs are satisfied, your desire to  achieve other needs would energize and direct your behavior **Maslow** – · people are born essentially good and can experience the world in healthy ways Hierarchy of Needs **//self-actualization//** – the final level of psychological development, in which one strives to realize one’s uniquely human potential – to achieve everything one is capable of achieving Psychological Sources of Motivation – a. //Incentives// · the “pull” of incentives can very motivating · incentive value – the strength of the “pull” of a goal or reward **//Cognitive Dissonance//** a state of internal tension brought about by conflicting attitudes and behavior **//Cognitive Dissonance Theory//** – the belief that people are motivated to resolve discrepancies between their behavior and their attitudes or beliefs · change attitude · change behavior · use self-justification · ignore inconsistencies **//effort justification//** – the tendency to place greater value on goals that are difficult to achieve in order to justify the effort expended in attaining them **//Psychological needs//** · psychological needs- needs that reflect interpersonal aspects of motivation such as the need for friendship or achievement · need for achievement – the need to excel in one’s endeavors · performance goals – goals that have extrinsic value as means to and end such as  getting good grades for the sake of gaining admission into graduate school · leaning goals – goals that have intrinsic value because of the satisfaction derived in  achieving them · achievement motivation – the motive or desire to avoid success 6. avoidance motivation – the motive or desire to avoid failure · fear of success – a type of avoidance that leads people to reject opportunities that might allow them to succeed
 * instinct theory fails to explain human motives 2. most psychologists agree that human behavior is directed by physiological needs and psychological wants
 * To be an instinct, a complex behavior must have a fixed pattern throughout a

**//Hunger//** To find out what exactly triggers hunger, A.L Washburn swallowed a balloon and then inflated it in his stomach. Once inflated, the balloon would transmit his stomach contractions to a recording device. Each time he felt hungry, he would push a button. He revealed that he was having stomach contractions when ever he was hungry. • Even when the stomach was removed from some rats, they were still eating. • Glucose is the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hungry By increasing insulin, glucose is then reduced because this hormone can convert glucose into stored fat. • Once your blood glucose level drops, your hunger increases. • Once there is a drop, signals from the stomach, intestines and liver start to signal your brain to motivate eating. • Hunger was found to be centered in the hypothalamus. • The lateral side brings on the stimulus for hunger. When stimulated, animals began to eat and when it was destroyed, starving animals would stop eating. • This happens by this region releasing orexin, a hormone which triggers hunger. The ventrome dial hypothalamus region depresses hunger, when the area is stimulated, animals will stop eating and when it is destroyed, it will cause the intestines to process food more rapidly. Explained why people with tumors in this region ate excessively and would gain weight. • Ghrelin is the hunger arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach. • Hunger dampening chemicals secreted by fat cells are known as leptin. • PYY is the digestive hormone which suppresses appetite. • One of the theories states that one may manipulate the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus and alter the body’s center which regulates our intake depending on our predisposed body weight also known as the set point. • Basal Metabolic rate is the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. • This may be untrue because there can be psychological factors which drive hunger. • Thus, theorists have been focusing on the settling point which is the level which a person’s weight settles in response to caloric intake and expenditure. • The Psychology of Hunger • Washburn and Cannon showed that hunger’s inner push corresponds to the stomach’s contractions, but hunger has other causes. • If the glucose level drops, the hunger increases. • Variations in body chemistry that influence our feelings of hunger include those of  insulin (secreted by the pancreas; controls blood glucose), leptin (secreted by fat  cells; signals brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger), orexin (secreted  by the hypothalamus; triggers hunger), ghrelin (secreted by empty stomach; sends  hunger signals to brain and PYY (secreted by digestive tract; sends not-hungry signals to brain). • The hypothalamus performs various body maintenance functions, including control of hunger. • The lateral hypothalamus brings on hunger. • The ventromedial hypothalamus depresses hunger.  Set point—the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.  • Basal metabolic rate—the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. • Slow sustained body weight can alter one’s set point. • Eating Disorders •  Anorexia Nervosa - When a normal-weight person diets and becomes  significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve .Usually and  adolescent female • When a person weighs less than 85% of their normal body weight • 95% of sufferers are female • most are between the ages of 18-30 • 30% of persons diagnosed with anorexia nervosa die Bulimia Nervosa -Disorder characterized by private “binge-purge” episodes of overeating, usually of high caloric foods, followed by vomiting or over exercise • A dramatic increase in poor body image has coincided with a rise in eating disorders among women in Western cultures. • In both anorexia and bulimia, psychological factors, such as challenging family settings and weigh-obsessed societal pressures, apparently over-whelm the homeostatic drive to maintain a balanced internal state. • In addition to cultural pressures, low self-esteem and negative emotions seem to interact with stressful life experiences to produce eating disorders. • Twin research also shows that these eating disorders may have a genetic component.

What makes us hungry? **//Glucostatic approach//** **–** low levels of blood sugar (glucose) results from food deprivation and creates a chemical imbalance and triggers bodily warnings to the brain that responds bygenerating hunger pangs in the stomach. **//hypothalamus//** – · stimulating the //lateral hypothalamus// causes laboratory animals to start eating even if it has consumed a full meal. When this area is surgically destroyed, the animal will stop eating and eventually starve to death. · the //ventromedial hypothalamus// acts as an off-switch that signals when it is time to stop eating. When this area is destroyed, animals will overeat and eventually become severely obese. · When levels of these substances are low, hunger or eating results. When levels of these substances are high, satiety (fullness) results. · Blood glucose Norepinephrine Dopamine Serotinin Glucagons Leptin When levels of these substances are high, hunger or eating results. When levels of these substances are low, satiety (fullness) results. Insulin Neuropeptide Y **Obesity** · obesity is a state of the excess body fat a national epidemic and major health risk social effects of obesity · 1. weight discrimination Gortmaker weight study (1993) · 370 obese women, ages 16-24 · 2/3 of women were not married seven years after to study · made 25% less than women in comparable jobs **Causes of obesity** · too many calories consumed · high fat · high calorie · larger portions · food is cheap · too little exercise **physiological** · fat cells – i. immediate determinants of body fat are the size and number of fat cells (each person has an average of 30 billion cells) o once the number of fat cells increase (due to genetic predisposition, early childhood eating patterns, or adult overeating) it NEVER decreases (fat cells may shrink on a diet but will not decrease) · **leptin** –hormone that works with the hypothalamus, pituitary, and thyroid to  influence hunger and metabolism because the release of leptin in their bloodstream effects the feelings of satiety and contribute to the regulation of body weight. o people who have high levels of leptin tend to be obese o study with overweight rats injected with leptin tend to loose weight · environmental factors and cultural factors o being bombarded with food cues o cultural pressure to a thin body ideal o cultures without a thin-ideal for women are also cultures without eating disorders o obesity is six times more common among the lower classes · **genetic predisposition** o genetics – obese gene (OB) on chromosome 7 identified in 2001 o set point theory – the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lower metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. o Basal metabolic rate - The rate you convert energy stores into working energy in your body. In other words, it's how fast your "whole system" runs. The metabolic rate is controlled by a number of factors, including: muscle mass (the greater your muscle mass, the greater your metabolic rate), calorie intake, and exercise. o a predisposition to genetically based disorders that have a direct effect on eating habits or body weight such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, and hypothyroidism reinforcement · food can be used in some households as positive reinforcement or  reward · if you eat all of your dinner, you may have desert · eating tasty foods is reinforcing which encourages the consumption of these foods modeling · through observational learning or a role-model, children can learn good as well as poor eating habits emotional states – · feelings of anger, lonely, boredom, and depression · many people find that food soothes these feelings by acting as a natural tranquilizer Loosing Weight · Be realistic about what ideal weight is   · Begin only if you feel motivated and self-disciplined · lifetime changes take time and commitment and should not be done while under stress or fatigue · Minimize exposure of temping food cues · keep tempting food out of the house · go to the supermarket on a full stomach only · eat simple, healthy meals (given more variety people eat more – study of “home town buffet”   · Take steps to boost your metabolism and lower your set point    · changing eating habits (consume less calories)    · 2. exercise    · Be realistic and moderate    · moderately heavy is more healthy than too thin    · 2. expect 10% weight reduction in six months    · Eat healthy foods    · Do not starve all day and eat one big meal at night   o slows metabolism and could interfere with sleep  Beware of the binge  o watch those cues that will set you to binge – anxious, depression, etc  o most people occasionally lapse, do not use it as an excuse to binge  Eating Disorders  o //Anorexia nervosa// – an eating disorder involving a pattern of self-starvation that results in an  unhealthy and potentially dangerous low body weight.  //Bulimia nervosa// – an eating disorder involving episodes of binge eating followed by  purging. Causes of eating disorders o 1. pressure from society or culture a. 60-75% of adolescent girls are unhappy with their weight (as young as 8) //Sexual Behavior// Alfred Kinsey’s Sex Study (1948, 1953) o first study on sex o interviewed 18,000 white urbanites with 350 rapid fire questions o never asked if results: o biological factors o brain and/or neurotransmitter function o most of the men and half of the women reported having premarital sex sexual behavior varied women who masturbated to orgasm before marriage reported they seldom has difficulties having an orgasm after marriage Masters and Johnson – most recent studies on sexual behavior (completed every 10 years or so) Sexual Response Cycle o excitement phase – physiological arousal due to increased blood low o plateau phase – excitement building to peak o orgasm phase – excitement and arousal reach peak o refractory resolution/period – a resting period after orgasm

**//Emotion//**

o emotions are feeling (or affect) states that involve a pattern of cognitive, physiological, and behavioral reactions to stimuli. Physiological Component (LeDoux’s Duel-Pathway Model of Fear) o When the thalamus (the brain’s sensory switchboard) receives input form the senses, it can send messages along two independent neural pathways, one traveling to the cortex and the other going directly to the amygdala. o This allows the amygdala to receive direct input from the senses and generate emotional reactions before the cerebral cortex has time to fully interpret what is causing the reaction. o The amygdala also seems to function as an early warning system for threatening social stimuli. o All emotional reactions register at the cortex level – unconscious reactions o memories and experiences aide in interpretation

Plutchik’s Color Wheel of Emotions o Eight primary emotions and those combinations of primary emotions produce the more complex secondary emotions represented outside the circle.

**James-Lange Theory** – o the belief that emotions occur after people become aware of their physiological o we are afraid because our body’s reaction tells us we are Cannon-Bard Theory o the belief that emotional and psychological reactions to triggering stimuli occur almost simultaneously. Schachter-Singer Approach – Two-Factor Theory of Emotion a. emotional experiences involve two factors: a state of general arousal and a cognitive Eliciting stimulus/event (seeing a bear) → Autonomic arousal/ behavioral response (we run) → Conscious emotion (fear) Eliciting stimulus/event (seeing a bear) → Subcortical activity in thalamus (sends messages simultaneously) → Autonomic arousal (we run) → Conscious emotion (fear) Eliciting stimulus/event (seeing a bear) → Autonomic arousal/ behavioral response (we run) → Interpretation as a function of context (bears are dangerous) → Conscious emotion (fear) Love interpretation (or labeling) of the causes of arousal **Sternberg – Triangular Model of Love** o Intimacy – the close bond and feeling of attachment between two people, including their desire to share their innermost thoughts and feelings o Passion – an intense sexual desire for the other person o Decision/commitment – the recognition that one loves the other person (decision component) and is committed to maintaining the relationship through good times and bad (commitment component) **Nonverbal Communication** o communication using facial expressions, gestures, and/or body position b. experience also can sensitize people to particular nonverbal communication or emotions