07.+Cognition

VII. Cognition (8–10%)

 * 1) Memory
 * 2) Language
 * 3) Thinking
 * 4) Problem Solving and Creativity

MEMORY ** The Phenomenon of Memory ** Memory is the persistence of learning over time. Psychologists have proposed several information-processing models of memory. We will use the influential three-stage processing model, which suggests that we (1) register fleeting sensory memories, some of which are (2) processed into on-screen short-term or working memories, a tiny fraction of which are (3) encoded for long-term memory and, possibly, later retrieval. ** Encoding ** Some types of information, notably information concerning space, time, and frequency, we encode mostly automatically. Other types of information, including much of our processing of meaning, imagery, and organization, require effort. Mnemonic devices depend on the memorability of visual images and of information that is organized into chunks. Organizing information into chunks and hierarchies also aids memory. ** Storage ** __ Sensory Memory __ Information first enters the memory system through the senses. We register and briefly store visual images via iconic memory and sounds via echoic memory. __ Short-Term and Long-Term Memory __ Our short-term memory span for information just presented is limited—a seconds-long retention of up to about seven items, depending on the information and how it is presented. Our capacity for storing information permanently in long-term memory is essentially unlimited. __ Storing Memories in the Brain __ The search for the physical basis of memory has recently focused on the synapses and their neurotransmitters; on the long-term potentiation of brain circuits, such as those running through the hippocampus; and on the effects of stress hormones on memory. Studies of people with brain damage reveal that we have two types of memory—explicit (declarative) memories processed by the hippocampus, and implicit (nondeclarative) memories processed by the cerebellum and the amygdala. ** Retrieval ** To be remembered, information that is "in there" must be retrieved, with the aid of associations (cues) that prime the memory. Cues sometimes come from returning to the original context. Mood affects memory, too. While in a good or bad mood, we tend to retrieve memories congruent with that mood. ** Forgetting ** One explanation of forgetting is that we fail to encode information for entry into our memory system. Without effortful processing, we never notice or process much of what we sense. Memories may also fade after storage—often rapidly at first, and then leveling off. Forgetting also results from retrieval failure. Retrieval-related forgetting may be caused by a lack of retrieval cues, by proactive or retroactive interference, or even, said Freud, by motivated forgetting. ** Memory Construction ** Memories are not stored as exact copies, and they certainly are not retrieved as such. Rather, we construct our memories, using both stored and new information. Thus, when child or adult eyewitnesses are subtly exposed to misinformation after an event, they often believe they saw the misleading details as part of the event. People also exhibit source amnesia, by attributing something heard, read, or imagined to a wrong source. Because false memories feel like true memories and are equally durable, sincerity need not signify reality. Memory researchers are especially suspicious of claims of long-repressed memories of sexual abuse, UFO abduction, or other traumas "recovered" with the aid of a therapist or suggestive book. More than we once supposed, incest and abuse happen. But unless the victim was a child too young to remember any early experiences, such traumas are usually remembered vividly, not banished into an active but inaccessible unconscious. ** Improving Memory ** The psychology of memory suggests concrete strategies for improving memory. These include spaced study; active rehearsal; encoding of well-organized, vivid, meaningful associations; mnemonic techniques; returning to contexts and moods that are rich with associations; recording memories before misinformation can corrupt them; minimizing interference; and self-testing and rehearsal. LANGUAGE ** Language Structure  ** Language is built of phonemes (basic speech sounds), morphemes (elementary units of meaning), and the semantics (rules for deriving meaning) and syntax (rules for word order) that make up grammar. ** Language Development  ** Among the marvels of nature is a child’s ability to acquire language. The ease with which children progress from the babbling stage through the one-word stage to the telegraphic speech of the two-word stage and beyond has sparked a lively debate concerning how they do it. Behaviorist B. F. Skinner proposed that we learn language by the familiar principles of association, reinforcement, and imitation. Challenging this claim, linguist Noam Chomsky argued that children are biologically prepared to learn words and use grammar. Cognitive neuroscientists emphasize that for mastery of grammar, the learning that occurs during life’s first few years, when the brain is building a dense network of neuronal connections, is critical. ** Language Acquisition  ** __ First stage __ – babbling - babbling appears to be innate - babies in this stage are capable of producing any phoneme from any language - babbling progresses into utterances of words as babies imitate the words they hear caregivers say __ Second stage __ – telegraphic speech - combine words into simple commands - begin to learn grammar and syntax rules during this stage THINKING Our cognitive system receives, perceives, and retrieves information, which we then use to think and communicate, sometimes wisely, sometimes foolishly. This chapter has so far explored how we form concepts, solve problems, and make judgments and decisions. ** Concepts   ** Concepts simplify and order the world by organizing it into a hierarchy of categories. Concepts often form around prototypes, or best examples of a category. Matching objects and ideas with prototypes is an efficient way of making snap judgments about what belongs in a specific category. ** Solving Problems   ** When faced with a novel situation for which no well-learned response will do, we may use such strategies as algorithms and heuristics. Sometimes the solution comes in a flash of insight. We do, however, face obstacles to successful problem solving. The confirmation bias predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses. And fixations, such as mental set and functional fixedness, may prevent our taking a needed fresh perspective on a problem. ** Making Decisions and Forming Judgments   ** Our use of heuristics, such as representativeness and availability, provides highly efficient but occasionally misleading guides for making quick decisions and forming intuitive judgments. Our tendencies to seek confirmation of our hypotheses and to use quick and easy heuristics can blind us to our vulnerability to error, a phenomenon known as overconfidence. And the way someone poses, or frames, a question affects our responses. ** Belief Bias   ** We tend to show a belief bias in our reasoning, accepting as more logical those conclusions that agree with our beliefs. We also exhibit belief perseverance, clinging to our ideas because the explanation we accepted as valid lingers in the mind even after the basis for the ideas has been discredited. Yet despite our capacity for error and our susceptibility to bias, human cognition is remarkably efficient and adaptive. As we gain expertise in a field, we grow adept at making quick, shrewd judgments. ** Simulating Thinking with Artificial Intelligence   ** Experimental computers and robots are performing operations that mimic human thinking. The most notable AI successes focus computer capacities for memory and precise logic on specific tasks, such as playing chess. For now, the brain’s capacity for processing unrelated information simultaneously and the wide range of its abilities dwarf those of the most sophisticated computer. But hopes grow that a new generation of computer neural networks, mimicking the brain’s neural networks, will produce more humanlike capabilities. PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY ** Schemata ** – cognitive rules we use to interpret the world Concepts- similar to schemats, rules that allow us to categorize and think about the objects, people, and ideas we encounter ** Prototypes ** – the most typical example of a particular concept ** Images ** – mental pictures Problem Solving ** Algorithms ** – try every possible solution,, an algorithm is a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or foolproof method, may be impractical ** Heuristics ** –a rule of thumb,it limits the possible combinations drastically ** Availability heuristic ** - judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially. ** Representativeness heuristic ** – judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind. Use of the heuristics can lead to specific problems in judgments. Overconfidence, belief bias, belief perseverance Impediments to Problem Solving- - rigidity (mental set) tendency to fall into established thought patterns - functional fixedness – the inability to see a new use for an object - not breaking the problem into parts - confirmation bias – we tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs - Framing – the way a problem is presented Creativity - little correlation between intelligence and creativity - difficult to define, originality, appropriateness, novel, somehow fits the situation - convergent thinking- thinking pointed toward one solution - divergent thinking- thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question - divergent thinking is more closely associated with creativity